Why do the wealthy deserve more income, even if they provide more value to the economy?

They don't deserve anything. People make high income because other people decide they value them more. Those other people are collectively called "the market."

why should wealthy people make many orders of magnitude more than their employees?

Because those people are worth orders of magnitude more.

Does a CEO deserve to make hundreds of times more in after-tax income than his or her worker, who might put the same amount of time and effort into the job?

Goodness gracious. You think how hard you work determines your value? You don't think that a CEO's ability to run a company that makes millions or billions in revenue and employs potentially thousands of workers is worth something? You think a CEO with say 20-30 years of experience and probably 6 years of expensive post-HS education isn't worth more than an average worker? Do you think a McDonald's janitor can be dropped into the place of Tim Cook at Apple and run it? I suppose by this logic you have no problem with the fact that lets say Trump has no experience in the public sector. I assume that should've never been a concern for you because if it was then that would contradict your argument. Anybody can easily be President then, even a janitor at McDonalds.

There really isn't much to debate here because your argument isn't based on a perspective of reality. You cannot have a market or economy if unique abilities don't have a value on them above others. You need a lot of education in economics.