We’ve made it so, because a lot of COCOS studies are based on the average, not marginal cost to cities. As a result, the economic costs of industry and apartments are highly overstated. And when people see them, there’s an automatic assumption that cities should build as much retail as possible as it has the lowest average.

If someone already has a preexisting school district, they won’t be hiring for another set of administrators. But only adding. Same with many other public services. Additionally, at a certain size, economies of scale start to exist. This is why it is ultimately important to accept that places where land is truly valuable to have more vertical development.

What I really dislike about urban planners is the COCOS study is often treated as the end-all-be-all, when in any reality, it is based upon significant and at times, unfounded assumptions.